MEDICINE

Human Memory: Reproductive or Reconstructive? 🧠

Our memory allows us to acquire, store, retain, and retrieve information. This means we can learn from both our successes and failures in order to improve future outcomes. Mental time travel also holds value for imagining “What if?” scenarios and potential outcomes. Human memory can be split into two broad categories: short-term memory and long-term memory. Long-term memory can be further divided into explicit memory (conscious recall—e.g. general knowledge, personal events) and implicit memory (no conscious recall—e.g. motor and cognitive skills).

Our memories are mainly stored in an area of the brain known as the hippocampus (see Patient HM for what happens when this is damaged), but it is thought that we reconstruct our past based on prior knowledge — and that (mis)leading information can disrupt this process.

💡 Things to consider

• Our Schema: Sir Frederick Bartlett was the first to propose the theory of reconstructive memory. His findings suggest that our memory is not like a recording and does not faithfully play back experiences. Bartlett stated that each of us has our own schema: an active organisation of our past reactions and experiences. Our memory uses this schema to organise events. So, when we recall an experience, our schema tells us what is “supposed” to happen.

  

  Bartlett showed how stories change when passed from person to person.

  Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts study (1932), in which participants distorted elements of a ghost story to fit their schema, is a famous experiment showing how schemas affect memory. Do you think your schema has ever impacted your memory? Also, consider the impact serial reproduction (i.e. continually repeating an experience back to parents, friends, family etc.) has on how you remember the experience.

• Modification of Memories: Our memories can be modified or created by (mis)leading information. Elizabeth Loftus revisited Bartlett’s ideas in the 1970s in a study where she showed participants a video of two cars colliding. Loftus then asked a leading question: “About how fast were the cars going when they ____ into each other?” She used either an intense verb (e.g. smashed) or a mild verb (e.g. hit). Participants who heard the intense verb typically estimated a much higher speed than those who heard the mild verb.

  This raises the question: can our memories be reconstructed differently if influenced by biased external information? This is particularly relevant when considering eyewitnesses to crimes, as they are often asked leading questions by police officers or lawyers.

• Confabulation: The reconstructive nature of memory is especially evident in pathological confabulation—a condition where people recall false memories without being aware of their inaccuracy. These memories are often plausible but are imaginary reconstructions of events. Confabulation is commonly caused by damage to the orbitofrontal cortex (an area of the brain located just above the eyes) or by a condition known as Korsakoff’s syndrome. Inaccurate reconstruction of events doesn’t have to be extreme—it has been observed that patients incorrectly recall nearly 50% of the information from a GP consultation. Consider how reconstructive memory impacts clinical practice, as well as our everyday lives.

🔎 Find out more

• A Basic Guide to Reconstructive Memory

• Patient HM (Wikipedia)

• How Reliable is Your Memory? (TEDTalk by Elizabeth Loftus)

• The Ultimate Guide to Memory (NewScientist)

🍒 The cherry on top

• 🏃‍♀️ Parkour & Mind-Body Connection: In this TED Talk, Taylor Lynn Carpenter explains how parkour isn’t just about flipping off walls — it’s a practice that sharpens mental focus, builds resilience, and promotes holistic health. Great for anyone curious about Sports Science.

• 🎲Maths Behind the Lottery: How many lottery tickets would you need to buy to guarantee a win? Mathematicians at the University of Manchester dive into the probabilities, patterns, and practicalities of cracking the lottery. A fascinating read if you’re into Maths or Statistics.

• 🎭 Pandemics & Art: How have artists responded to the realities of disease — from the Spanish Flu to Covid-19? This long-form piece explores how artists like Angela Su, Blast Theory, and Mariam Ghani used pandemics as inspiration to examine global health, political narratives, and social connectedness. A powerful read if you’re into Art or Sociology.

👀 Keep your eyes peeled for…

• 21st May

  • Oxford History Webinar

  • Sheffield Computer Science Webinar

  • Sheffield Landscape Architecture/Urban Planning/Geography Webinar

• 22nd May

  • Magdalene College Cambridge UCAT Webinar

  • Murray Edwards College Cambridge Tort Law Webinar

  • Oxford History Webinar

  • Sheffield Engineering Webinar

  • St Anne’s College Oxford - Supercurricular Club (Maths, Psychology and Mental Health)

• 23rd May

  • Oxford History Webinar

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